Located in Hiwali – a small rural settlement of about 25 farming households deep in the Satmala mountain range in India – the Hiwali school was initiated by a joint venture by the Give Welfare Organization and Armstrong Robotics & Technologies. Every aspect of this project was unique – starting from the site being a narrow rural strip only accessible via a 50 ft hike from the village road to the actual use case of the building – not just a normal school but somewhat of a daycare functioning 10 hours a day, 365 days a year. The school serves as a “home base” for the remarkable teacher Keshav Gavit – known for his innovative teaching methods and his students who write with both hands and memorize over a thousand tables.
pkinceptionarquitecturaviva
The design, starting with the water moat that protects the site from runoff, is extremely adaptive to the environment and sensitive to the materials that are easily accessible yet still retain desirable qualities. Modular blocks shown below house the office, computer room, science room, projector room, and library, each arranged diagonally to allow for both expansion towards the mountain and to protect and shape the sometimes aggressive winds.
pkinception
The exposed brick walls of these modules share the load for a gently sloping roof that zigzags over the school, allowing for a very open, inside-and-out relationship everywhere within the school – shaping areas that are interconnected and flexible, while still maintaining focused spaces required for a school, spaces and volumes shifting between 5 and 8 feet – in scale for the children that use the space. Materially, the school is very interesting – the bricks that comprise most of the modules avoid the use of ubiquitous reinforced concrete to shift towards a local production, but also retain excellent thermal lag – absorbing the daytime heat and radiating it during the cool mountain evenings. These bricks are left entirely exposed on both interior and exterior surfaces, allowing for easy maintenance and the avoidance of commercial plasters, which degrade and are expensive.
The cow dung and earth flooring present in the high plinth allow for comfort for both sitting and sleeping. This application of mud and cow-dung paste, often called leepan, is an ancient practice known for not only thermal mass properties but for insect-repellent and antiseptic benefits as well. Every part of the building is designed to be used and maintained, even the exposed brick being an easy platform for nailing boards onto, was intentional.
Shido Soil Museum was designed by HIRAMATSUGUMI, an architecture practice based on Awaji Island, Japan. They are exploring a form of architecture that naturally emerges from the land on which we now stand—architecture in its essential state. The project was developed in collaboration with Kinki Kabezai, a long-established manufacturer of earthen wall materials, as a space dedicated to the exploration, display, and public rethinking of soil as an architectural medium.
Project Information
Location: Awaji, Hyogo, Japan Completion: 2022 Opening: 2023 Area: approx. 181 m² Program: Museum / exhibition space / material experience center
Shido Soil Museum is not conceived as a conventional museum, but as an immersive environment where soil becomes the main subject of space, material expression, and public engagement.
The project reconsiders soil not as a hidden or secondary construction material, but as a visible and experiential medium. Rooted in the idea of “Jimon”—patterns and traces formed by geological movements, topography, and the surface of the earth—the museum translates the imagery of strata, erosion, rupture, and terrain into architectural space.
Rather than presenting soil as a nostalgic or purely vernacular material, the design frames it as a contemporary spatial language. Walls, floors, and surfaces evoke excavated ground, exposed layers, and cracked earth, turning the building into a spatial interpretation of the land itself.
The project makes extensive use of Awaji soil, drawing on the island’s long history of earthen construction and craft. Soil is employed not only as a building finish but as the central medium through which color, texture, thickness, and tactility are expressed.
What is especially significant is that the project does not rely on a single earthen technique. Instead, it presents a broad spectrum of soil-based applications, including rammed earth elements, layered earthen walls, thick plastered surfaces, carved textures, and earthen flooring. Through these varied treatments, soil is revealed as a material of both technical and sensory richness.
One of the most compelling aspects of the museum is its use of localized wall-making techniques to produce distinct spatial atmospheres. Certain walls recall rammed earth construction, where compacted layers create a sense of geological depth and mass. Others are formed through thick earthen plaster and hand-finishing techniques, allowing cutting, scraping, cracking, and layering to remain visible on the surface.
This wall directly adopts the logic of traditional Japanese rammed earth construction. Soil is placed into formwork and compacted layer by layer, producing a dense, stratified mass. A deliberate vertical cut is then introduced into the wall, intensifying the image of a fractured geological layer. This technique emphasizes mass, compression, and stratification, while turning the wall into a spatial representation of tectonic rupture.
One-Cut Rammed Earth Wall
2. Red-Ochre Wall(赭土の壁)
This wall is made by mixing a small amount of iron oxide into Awaji soil. Its surface is then carved and shaped with a trowel to produce textures resembling a cut mountainside or exposed earth section. Here, the focus is less on structural mass and more on color modulation and sectional expression, allowing the wall to evoke the visual depth of geological terrain.
Red-Ochre Wall
3. Dragon-Scale Wall(龍鱗壁)
The Dragon-Scale Wall is formed through repeated plastering and carving, generating a highly articulated surface texture. Rather than presenting soil as a flat finish, this method highlights its capacity for ornament, rhythm, and tactile richness, transforming the wall into a textured field that captures light and shadow.
Dragon-Scale Wall
4. Magnificent Collapse(土崩壮麗)
This technique uses an unusually thick earthen coating to evoke the dramatic face of an excavated cliff or collapsed earth section. Its significance lies in its exaggerated thickness and sculptural presence, pushing earthen finishing beyond conventional wall treatment and toward an effect of erosion, weight, and exposed terrain.
Magnificent Collapse
5. The Bare Skin of the Earth(大地の素肌)
In this treatment, common additives such as reinforcing fibers or stabilizing materials are intentionally reduced. The wall is allowed to dry and crack naturally through the interaction of soil and water alone. Instead of concealing fragility, this method turns shrinkage, cracking, and imperfection into the very expression of the surface. It presents earth in a more raw and vulnerable state, where instability itself becomes an aesthetic quality.
The Bare Skin of the Earth
6. Earthen Steps of Hierarchy(土階八等)
This installation takes its motif from the four-character phrase “Doka Santō”—a reference to the humble palace life of Emperor Bi of Qin, who is said to have governed an era of peace while living simply. Drawing from this idea, the design expresses a presence that is materially modest yet spatially dignified, like a palace in character.
This technique is less about wall-making itself and more about the symbolic use of earthen mass as architectural form. By shaping soil into stepped geometry, it gives earth a sense of monumentality and ceremonial presence, showing how a humble material can still convey gravity, order, and spatial authority.
Earthen Steps of Hierarchy
7. Awaji Armor Wall(淡路鎧壁)
This work adopts the yoroi-kabe technique—traditionally used in earthen boundary walls for cultural heritage sites and vernacular architecture—but reinterprets it here by reversing its usual vertical orientation. Through this inversion, the wall more strongly emphasizes a sense of weight, density, and the raw ruggedness of the earth.
Awaji Armor Wall
8. Fertile Earthen Floor(豊沃の土間)
The dramatically undulating earthen floor represents the earth itself as a swelling, rising ground plane. In doing so, it overturns the conventional assumption that an interior earthen floor should be finished flat according to architectural norms.
Fertile Earthen Floor
9. The Rust of Clay Tiles(窯土の寂び)
This work incorporates Awaji clay roof tiles, one of the island’s local ground-based industries. The tiles on the wall are intentionally left unfired so that, over time, they darken with age, expressing a weathered quality akin to the patina and quiet austerity associated with a tea room.
This technique is especially compelling for its emphasis on time and material aging. By refusing to complete the tiles through firing, the project allows change, darkening, and imperfection to become part of the design. It presents earth not as a fixed finish, but as a medium that continues to transform, carrying associations of patina, memory, and wabi-sabi-like atmosphere.
The Rust of Clay Tiles
Sensory Experience and Related Activities
The museum also hosts a range of hands-on art workshops that invite visitors to touch and work with soil. In the café, several foods are designed to mimic the visual appearance of earth, and some even incorporate edible soil-like material, including diatomaceous earth.
“Touch” – soil texture art workshop“Eat” – diatomaceous earth
Hao is widely considered a pioneer of “Social Architecture” in Vietnam. His philosophy revolves around the idea that architecture should not just be for the wealthy, but a tool to improve the lives of the marginalized. The firm is famous for combining traditional building techniques (like rammed earth, bamboo, and thatch) with modern structural engineering. They prioritize low-carbon footprints, using materials that are sourced locally. In an effort to harbor their social architecture approach, during the design and construction of the school, 1+1>2 often involved the villagers ensuring the community feels a sense of ownership over the finished school.
The Hang Tau Kindergarten and Primary School, located in the remote mountains of the Son La province in Vietnam, is a masterclass in how architecture can serve as both a functional shelter and a cultural bridge. Designed to serve the ethnic minority children of the region, the project is a testament to the power of “pro-bono” architecture that doesn’t compromise on beauty or utility.
The school’s design is heavily influenced by the rugged terrain and the traditional architecture of the local H’Mong people. Rather than leveling the land the architects opted for a stilted structure that follows the natural slope of the mountainside. The school is made up of various materials sourced locally and/or made on-site. Foundations are made of local mountain stone with adobe bricks stacked above. Some walls even being fully constructed of stone or adobe. Frames, fences and ceiling treatments are made with bamboo and natural wood to provide breathable interiors and soft boundaries that properly integrate this new building into the village. The roof materials somewhat break from tradition, using corrugated metal to provide proper insulation and ensure the building is watertight.
Traditional H’Mong architecture
The school’s roofline, the most striking feature, is made to mimic the surrounding mountain peaks, allowing the building to blend seamlessly into the landscape. The school is divided into distinct “blocks” for the kindergarten and primary levels. These blocks are connected by covered walkways and open-air bridges, creating a sense of a small, interconnected village rather than an isolated institution.
Although the primary purpose of the building is education, the school serves as the beating heart of the village. Often in remote Vietnamese regions, schools also become communal spaces for adults outside of school hours. The Hang Tau school serves to strengthen the sense of community that is heavily embedded in the Vietnamese culture. This is not only embodied by the programming of the school but the architecture itself as it also preserves the culture through the use of “local aesthetics”. Allowing the students to take pride in their culture and value their roots.
Given the tropical climate, the buildings utilize high ceilings and perforated walls (often made of local wood or brick) to allow cross-breezes, eliminating the need for mechanical cooling. These apertures also increase and incentivize connection the natural landscape which is a core value in Vietnamese culture and architecture. The school provides modern education while instilling the values of traditions of past generations. Giving the students access to successful futures and influential pasts.
Kooo Architects was founded in 2015 by Ayaka and Shinya Kojima and has offices in Tokyo and Beijing. They questioned the homogenized materiality and uniform streets as a result of mass production, they aim to carry on and express the beauty and craftsmanship that is particular to that region through incorporating materials and details that can inherit its local climate and cultural background.
In this project, they used custom-made bricks that combine compressed earth with waste tea leaves to create a natural feel inside the Théatre teashop.
The store located in Beijing’s CBD belongs to Chinese brand Théatre, which wanted to immerse guests in the tea-drinking experience. So they created a multi-sensory space featuring tactile, natural materials that contribute to the store’s calming atmosphere.
In an effort to incorporate tea itself into the interior design, Kooo Architects worked with Beijing-based Onearthstudio to develop a “tea-earth brick” that is used to clad 80 per cent of the store’s walls.
The bricks are moulded in a factory using a similar process to the way rammed earth buildings are constructed. This low-carbon process results in an environmentally friendly and non-toxic material with a wide range of natural colours.
Kooo Architects tested different soil types and tea varieties to achieve a range of tones and textures for the bricks whilst maintaining the required strength in the material.
The leaves used are leftovers from tea production that would otherwise be discarded as waste. The crumbled tea leaves create a textured surface that can be seen from up close, while the assembled bricks display natural tonal variations when viewed from a distance. The bricks for this project were produced with compact dimensions of 10 by 10 by 3 centimeters, making them suitable for cladding walls, doors and furnishings.
The brick becomes the basic module for space layout and furniture sizes, so everything is regulated clean and peaceful to the eye. They also made a special L-shape module for the corners so it wraps around smoothly.
A red version of the bricks was chosen for a large volume that forms a focal point within the space, while the surrounding walls feature a more muted yellow tone that contributes to the relaxing feel.
The bricks were also used to create a lintel for the main facade, with folding windows and doors allowing the store to be opened up completely to the outside.
Internally, the space is organized into different functional zones, with a large sales display area and serving counter positioned inside the entrance.
Shelves and counters arranged at different heights are used to display the various products while drawers containing samples allow customers to learn about different types of tea.
To the rear of the store is a private lounge area and a VIP tea room shaped like a traditional tea house with an exposed pitched ceiling. Accessed through a darker preparation area, the naturally lit space is softened by the application of a textured render on the walls and ceiling.
When the shop is eventually overhauled – as retail interiors only last for around three to five years – the bricks can be taken down and reprocessed for use in future stores or go back to nature.
Builder: Imperial Chinese Dynasties (Qin, Han, Ming)
Location: Northern China
Primary Construction: 3rd Century BCE – 17th Century CE
Length: Over 21,196 km (13,000+ miles)
Construction: Rammed Earth, Stone, Brick
The Great Wall of China is one of the largest architectural and engineering systems ever constructed. Rather than a single continuous wall built at once, it is a network of defensive walls, watchtowers, fortresses, and natural barriers constructed over nearly two millennia to protect imperial China’s northern borders.
HISTORICAL CONTEXT
The Great Wall of China does not have a single architect because it was constructed across multiple dynasties over nearly 2,000 years. Instead, it represents evolving architectural authorship under different imperial rulers. Each dynasty functioned as both patron and designer, adapting the Wall to new political and military conditions.
Qin Dynasty – Qin Shi Huang (3rd Century BCE)
The first large-scale unification of defensive walls began under Qin Shi Huang in 221 BCE.
Qin Shi Huang was born in 259 BCE in the state of Qin during the Warring States period. Although he was not formally “educated” as an architect in the modern sense, he was trained as a ruler and military strategist. After conquering rival states, he unified China and centralized political authority. His administrative reforms standardized writing systems, currency, road systems, and infrastructure.
His motivation for building was strategic and political. Northern nomadic groups such as the Xiongnu threatened the stability of the newly unified empire. By linking previously independent regional walls into a continuous defense system, Qin Shi Huang aimed to secure territorial boundaries and demonstrate imperial strength.
Contribution:
Connected regional defensive walls into a larger unified system.
Established rammed earth as the primary construction method.
Used forced labor from soldiers, peasants, and prisoners.
Positioned walls along natural ridgelines for defensive advantage.
These early sections were constructed primarily from rammed earth. Soil was compacted in layers between wooden forms, creating dense, load-bearing defensive barriers.
Han Dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE)
During the Han Dynasty, the Wall was expanded westward to protect Silk Road trade routes. Han emperors were administrators and military rulers, continuing Qin’s centralized governance model.
Contribution:
Extended Wall deeper into desert regions (Gansu corridor).
Used rammed earth mixed with gravel and reeds for added strength.
Integrated beacon towers for rapid communication.
The Han contribution emphasizes the Wall not only as defense but as economic infrastructure. It controlled trade taxation and secured caravan routes.
Ming Dynasty (1368–1644)
The most recognizable and well-preserved sections today were built during the Ming dynasty.
The Ming emperors were ruling after the fall of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. Having experienced foreign rule, they were deeply invested in border security. Imperial engineers during this period functioned as state-trained builders and military designers.
Rebuilt large portions using fired brick and stone.
Created composite walls: brick exterior with rammed earth or rubble core.
Designed fortified passes with complex gatehouses.
Increased tower frequency for line-of-sight signaling.
Improved drainage systems to reduce erosion.
The Ming sections represent a technological evolution. The structure became thicker, taller, and more fortified. Towers included interior rooms, stairs, storage spaces, and defensive openings.
SITE & LANDSCAPE
The Wall follows mountain ridgelines for strategic defense.
The Wall stretches across mountains, deserts, and grasslands. It follows ridgelines to maximize visibility and reduce material needs. By working with the landscape, the Wall becomes both fortification and landform.
PROGRAM, MATERIALS, & FORM
Watchtower used for surveillance and signaling.Walkway wide enough for troops and horses.
The Great Wall is not a single building with square footage but a territorial-scale system. It extends more than 21,000 kilometers across northern China.
Program includes: Defensive walls, Watchtowers, Beacon towers, Fortified gates and passes, Military housing, Trade control checkpoints
Early Construction: Rammed earth (tamped soil between wooden forms), Gravel and reeds in desert regions
Later Construction (Ming): Fired brick facing, Stone foundations, Rammed earth or rubble core, Lime mortar
The process involved layering material in lifts and compacting each layer. The walls taper upward, creating structural stability through compressive mass.
The form of the Wall is linear and serpentine. It adapts to terrain rather than imposing a rigid geometry. Watchtowers create rhythmic intervals along the landscape. The thickness of the wall allows it to be inhabitable. Soldiers could move along its top, shelter inside towers, and defend through crenellations.
RAMMED EARTH CONSTRUCTION
Before brick and stone were widely used, large portions of the Wall were constructed using rammed earth. This method involved placing soil between wooden formwork and compacting it in layers using tampers. Each layer was compressed until it formed a dense, rock-like mass.
Rammed earth was ideal for several reasons. It used locally available soil, reducing transportation demands. It created extremely thick, load-bearing walls with high compressive strength. In arid climates, rammed earth proved durable and stable over centuries.
In many Ming sections, rammed earth forms the internal core of the wall, while brick and stone create a protective exterior shell. This composite system combines the mass and structural stability of earth with the weather resistance of masonry.
The Great Wall demonstrates that rammed earth can perform at massive territorial scale. It validates earth as a structural material capable of forming defensive infrastructure thousands of miles long.
CONCLUSION
The Great Wall of China demonstrates architecture at the scale of geography. It redefines what a “building” can be by functioning as territorial infrastructure.
It inspired later global fortification systems, use of rammed earth in defensive architecture, and integration of architecture with topography.
Architecturally, it proves that rammed earth is not primitive but structurally capable of massive construction. The material’s compressive strength, durability in arid climates, and availability made it ideal for large-scale defense.
Politically, the Wall symbolizes centralized authority and national identity. It reflects the ability of the state to mobilize labor and resources over generations.
Environmentally, it demonstrates sustainable construction through local material sourcing and terrain integration.
Ultimately, the Great Wall is not just a defensive barrier. It is a layered architectural narrative built over centuries, reflecting evolving technologies, political ambitions, and material intelligence. It stands as one of the earliest examples of architecture functioning simultaneously as engineering, infrastructure, cultural symbol, and landscape intervention
Image Credits:
UNESCO World Heritage Centre
Text Sources:
UNESCO World Heritage Centre. “The Great Wall.” https://whc.unesco.org/en/soc/3642
Magellan TV “Who Built the Great Wall of China and Why?” https://www.magellantv.com/articles/who-built-the-great-wall-of-china-and-why
Location: He now lives and works in Chongqing and Dali.
Xi’s art, which is always gentle – even to the point of being hard to discern, built as it often is from organic matter and placed amongst leaves, moss, stones, and bark – is also, in fact, making a very bold and visionary proposal.
Nature and Self
Xi’s proposal is this: that Self and Nature need not be separate entities. He is not expressing or documenting or representing either Self or Nature. Instead, he is exploring ways that Self and Nature relate and interpenetrate. He is actively demonstrating that one is part of the other. Thus, his interventions into Nature are a ‘working with’ Nature’s materials and a ‘working with’ Nature’s seasons and Nature’s cycles of time. If we see his naked body becoming part of the work, it is not to promote the ego of the artist, or to titillate – it is to make the far bolder assertion that we, as human beings, are part of Nature’s constant motion and materiality.
“The soil is part of us. We are part of the soil. The bamboo forest is part of us. We are part of the bamboo forest. We are as vulnerable as Nature, as porous, as interdependent, as constantly changing, as borderless.”
In his artistic practice rooted in human interventions into nature, the creator Xiguan Lei becomes a subtle orchestrator, leaving vanishing trails and marks that seamlessly blend with the natural landscape yet bear the unmistakable imprint of human hands. Reminiscent of land art pioneers like Richard Long or Robert Smithson, the artist engages in a poetic dialogue with the environment, crafting ephemeral installations that challenge the boundaries between the natural and the man-made.
Geometric Concepts
Xi’s methodology is influenced by Descartes’ and Spinoza’s geometric concepts including Rectangular Setup and Extension, Einstein’s theory of space, and the mathematical ideas of Euler and Gauss. He lays out the material in a particular shape, size, volume, and manner. We can see the sharp and hard edges and minimalism everywhere in the various forms of adobes and plants, with parts of the works independent of and also participating in the whole. Xi advocates that the viewer “walk through” the landscape and perceive the deep connection with nature. Put together, the images of their works both reveal the sense of mystery and miracle, where artistic phenomena are created and disappear in the rhythm of nature.
Xi gathers material on the spot including soil and plants to create his works. Surrounded by mosses, ferns, and seed plants, the hand-made adobes are arranged solidly in a structural manner. This is the most iconic series of his works whose titles are quoted from classical Chinese literature: the Book of Songs and theSongs of Chu, such as It is Nice to be in the Garden, There is a Sandalwood (乐彼之园，爰有树檀)(2019), Swoop Flies that Falcon, Dense that Northern Wood (鴥彼晨风，郁彼北林)(2020), and The Appearance and Height of the Lush Plants Match Beautifully (纷緼宜修)(2020). Xi borrows these responses from ancient Chinese philosophers to the rhythms of nature, alluding to the unity of the abstract structure and figurative content in his works, and the fusion of classical Eastern aesthetics with Western spatial geometry. Legitimately, Xi calls his works “Land Art” rather than installations or sculptures. In terms of Land Art, it uses nature as the creative medium, and always emphasizes the visual form of the site-specific context, looking for an organic integration between the works and nature. One Issues from the Dark Valley and Removes to the Lofty Tree (出自幽谷，迁于乔木) (2019) , one of the series of adobes, created in 2019 and eroded back to the land during the rainy season in 2021, which is a vivid projection of the journey of human life.
Lei’s work does not need – and probably not always meant – to be contained in a gallery or put against a wall because this would undermine his core artistic if not philosophical purpose: this is only in nature, out in the open air, where Lei’s adobes turn to be his art. This is out there that time can do his essential share, that is slowly absorbing as a sound graft Lei’s adobes as they are designed to be. Lei’s structures, given the infinite potential of adobes, can take all sort of forms: they can be seen as burial site or places of meditation – see “1120 Conversations I had with Moss and a Rock”, “I’m Walking in the Field”.
Once build or installed in nature, Lei’s structures slowly fade away, change form and aspect over time and may eventually disappear. This is a key point about Lei’s artworks: as they are made from earth, they are designed to evolve when placed on the ground, slowly and silently, and possibly completely disappear. This gives the opportunity for the observer to witness not a still artwork but an evolution, that is the exact opposite of a still life: real life. We cannot but notice the humility of Lei’s artistic approach. From a Chinese viewpoint, the reference to Taoism comes readily to the mind when trying to understand Lei’s artistic approach. Laozi Tao Te Ching, to put it in a few poor words, teaches us that all things come from a unique energy, transforms, fades away and recycle in the “logos”.
Xiguan Lei’s artistic practice holds a significant role within the contemporary environmental discourse framed by the Anthropocene. As we grapple with the profound impact of human activities on the planet, his installations and sculptures serve as poignant reflections and catalysts for conversations surrounding humanity’s relationship with the environment in this epoch. The ephemeral nature of his works mirrors the transience inherent in the Anthropocene era. The marks left by the artist’s body and other interventions evoke the impermanence of our impact on the environment, fostering a contemplation of the evolving and often precarious balance between human activity and the natural world.
Lei considers his art “a grand and silent game of building blocks”. He also told that those adobes could be considered words. That begs the question of their meaning. Just as the stones used in ancient civilization building, Lei’s adobes talk to anyone willing to listen. But the observer has to be tender ear because Lei’s art is elegant and subtle enough only to whisper. As to what it is whispering, “The Tao that can be told is not the eternal Tao”. This is how much Xiguan Lei’s art can offer: a glance at eternity.
Built in 2008 in a small village called Rudrapur in Northern Bangladesh, the DESI (Dipshikha Electrical Skill Improvement) Training Center is a vocational school for electrical training. At the age of 19, the architect of this project, Anna Heringer, lived in Bangladesh for a year working with the NGO Dipshika on sustainable development. She quickly learned from her time in Bangladesh that the most successful development strategy is to “trust in existing, readily available resources and to make the best out of it instead of getting depended on external systems.”
The DESI Training Center uses traditional Bangladeshi homestead plans as basis for interrogation. As in many Central/South Asian home plans, the traditional Bangladeshi home consists of multiple structures possessing different programs situated around a central inner courtyard. The DESI building attempts to bring all of these different programs under one structure, while still utilizing traditional building methods.
DESI Training Center plan
The buildings main structure comprises of wattle & daub techniques utilizing thick bamboo as a lattice frame work to capture and give form to the piled earth added by hand.
Wattle & daub constructionBuild process
In the image above, notice the circular mounds of excavated earth in the foreground. It is beautiful to realize the connection between construction and construction site sharing the same environment and materials simultaneously in an act of reciprocity.
Cattle power
Although a school for electrical training, most of the labor and energy placed into the build were still based on analog and traditional technologies. Here cattle are used to mix the soil that is to be used for the daub, engaging local workers and craftsmen in the process of the entire project.
ClassroomSolar panel installation
It is interesting to witness an environment that was built to serve technology, in this case electrical technology, not take the form of its inherent use. A college campus may design and build an “engineering” building to feel like “engineering”, to feel technologically modern and well equipped for the learning that will occur within its walls, however the DESI Training Center shows us how these ideas and typologies can sometimes misinform the design process, and ultimately the design problem at hand.
The entire building is hooked up to solar panels for power, producing 100% of the building’s energy needs. The heating system is based on solar thermal technologies, and solar power also powers the pump for accessing water from the onsite well. This also perhaps (reference needs to be checked) the first time modern sanitary unties + septic tanks have been integrated into an earthen structure in Bangladesh.
DESI Training Center
The DESI building houses two classrooms, two offices, and two residences for the school instructors. There is a separate bathroom with two showers and two toilets for the teachers and a bathroom facility with toilets and sinks on the ground floor for the students. [source] Bearing no loss in traditional culture, material, or forms of making, this building embodies the possibilities of a modern earthen architecture applied to a specific set of requirements, needs, and programs. The DESI Training Center acts as model to realize the full potential an earthen architecture can deliver humans in the modern age, without having to compromise many facets of modernity that are considered incompatible with earth.
Anna Heringer’s METI Handmade School in Bangladesh exemplifies an innovative approach to sustainable architecture, rooted in local materials and traditional building techniques. The school was designed to serve as a community hub for education, demonstrating how effective construction methods can enhance both functionality and environmental stewardship.
The building features two contrasting levels: the ground floor, with thick earth walls and three classrooms, creates a tactile, intimate atmosphere. Each classroom opens to an organic system of ‘caves’. The upper floor contrasts sharply with its light, open design. Bamboo walls allow sweeping views of the treetops and village pond, while sunlight filters through, casting shadows on the earth floor. Colorful saris hang from the ceiling, adding vibrancy to the space, which is designed for movement and connection to the surrounding natural environment. Together, the two levels balance earthiness with openness, offering both introspective and expansive experiences.
The foundation of the building rests on a 50 cm deep brick masonry base, finished with a cement plaster facing. In Bangladesh, bricks are the primary building material, produced from the region’s abundant clayey alluvial sand, as natural stone is scarce. These bricks are fired in open circular kilns using imported coal, resulting in a durable and locally sourced construction element.
An essential addition to local earthen building practices is the damp proof course, consisting of a double layer of locally available polyethylene film. This innovation protects the structure from moisture, enhancing its longevity. The ground floor features load-bearing walls constructed using a technique akin to cob walling. A mixture of straw and earth, with minimal straw content, is prepared with the help of local livestock and applied in layers atop the foundation. Each layer is heaped to a height of 65 cm and then trimmed after a few days to maintain uniformity. After allowing for a drying period, successive layers are added, integrating door and window lintels along with a ring beam made of thick bamboo canes.
The ceiling of the ground floor employs a triple layer of bamboo canes, with the central layer arranged perpendicularly to provide lateral stabilization. This layer is topped with split bamboo planking and filled with the earthen mixture, mirroring techniques used in European timber-frame constructions.
For the upper storey, a frame construction is utilized, comprising four-layer bamboo beams and vertical and diagonal members arranged at right angles. This design enhances the structural integrity of the building, with the frames at the ends stiffening the overall structure. Additional structural members connect the beams, and wind bracing is incorporated on the upper surface to further strengthen the frame. Supporting the corrugated iron roof are a series of bamboo rafters, which are adjusted in height for optimal runoff, topped with timber paneling.
Through its innovative design and construction techniques, the METI Handmade School not only provides an educational facility but also serves as a model for sustainable building practices. It engages the community, preserves traditional craftsmanship, and utilizes local resources effectively, making it a beacon of environmental and social responsibility in architecture.
Nestled in the stunning mountainous landscapes of Ladakh, India, the Druk White Lotus School represents a landmark achievement in sustainable, climate-responsive design.
Conceived and designed by Arup Associates, the school embodies the seamless integration of modern architectural innovation and centuries-old local traditions, creating a space that is both environmentally sustainable and deeply connected to Ladakh’s cultural heritage. Inspired by the principles of Tibetan Buddhism and the region’s vernacular architecture, the Druk White Lotus School’s design prioritizes cultural authenticity. Local architecture in Ladakh is traditionally built using mud and wood, materials that are readily available and suited to the harsh climate of the region.
Arup Associates embraced these natural materials to create a structure that echoes traditional Ladakhi building methods while incorporating modern techniques to ensure long-term resilience.
The layout of the school reflects a deep connection to nature and spirituality. Buildings are arranged in clusters, symbolizing Buddhist mandalas, creating a harmonious flow between the interior learning spaces and the surrounding natural environment. The design respects Ladakh’s spiritual heritage while ensuring that students learn in an environment that fosters a connection with their cultural roots.
As well, such as the wooden eaves in the roof, earth-clad for better thermal performance. Wood is also used in the interior, both for floors and the frames of the large windows that bring light into the classrooms. Among the strategies applied to capitalize on passive solar gain are the building’s radiation-maximizing orientation, the functioning of the south facades as Trombe walls, and the use of solar thermal panels for heating and hot water. Water is saved through dry latrines with forced ventilation (by solar chimneys). Because the place is at such a high altitude and the skies are so bright, photovoltaic panels generate all the electricity the school needs.
Engineering and architectural aspects focused very much on sustainability, which was particularly important given the challenges of the location, with limited water supply and sometimes adverse climate conditions.
The supply road to the area could be cut off by snow for up to six months of the year yet, on the positive side, sunlight hours are high. The school is located in an area of considerable seismic activity and the methods used to ensure improved safety in the event of an earthquake needed to be easy to emulate for future structures. Most traditional local buildings don’t benefit from seismic engineering so the Druk White Lotus will spark a new generation of safety-enhanced structures, better able to withstand the ravages of a natural disaster.
With relatively non-complex structural approaches, using timber frames to resist seismic loads, the school enjoys improved protection from earth movements. Blocks used for the external walls were quarried on site, making effective use of available resources. During cold evenings resident pupils feel the benefit of ventilated cavity walls, made of mud brick and glass.
Solar energy is stored through the day and used to heat the interior at night. Solar panels generate electrical energy, minimizing local emissions and making maximum use of the high sunlight hours. The panels feed battery packs in an energy center, powering lighting, water supply, and even computers.
Ventilation is natural and the building is positioned to receive natural light.
Limited water supply led to the creation of a dual recycling and distribution system for irrigation. Ground water is pumped using solar power to a tank at the top of the site. Rainfall is directed to planted trees and gravity fed to gardens and water points.
A solar pump powers the unique recycling system, which supplies drinking water to the school’s occupants. The circuit is completed with the disposal of wastewater: waste is filtered down pipes, eventually feeding and sustaining the shady trees surrounding the school. The introduction of Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) latrines is a cost effective, low-tech method of maintaining a high standard of renewable sanitation – they do not use water but instead a solar driven flue to counteract smells and insects.
The building is a truly self-sufficient operation on all counts: an effective reusable energy engine and a valid health and sanitation system.
Yemen is located on the southern coast of the Arabian Peninsula, and the city of Shibam is renowned for its densely packed mudbrick buildings. These high-rise structures were built in close proximity as a defensive measure against Bedouin raids.
With its 500 narrow houses bunched close together, built like a fortress in the midst of Wadi Hadramaut, Shibam is architecturally unique. Its six-storey houses, built of mud with stone foundations, look like skyscrapers. The nickname “Manhattan of the desert” is an apt one. Twice destroyed in the 13th and 16th centuries, Shibam has scarcely altered since it was last rebuilt after 1553.
Shibam’s buildings are multistory (up to 11 stories), and the city is considered one of the earliest examples of vertical urban planning. The towers range between 5 to 11 stories, made primarily of adobe bricks reinforced with wooden beams.
The city is enclosed by a protective wall, with two gates serving as entry points. The compact clusters of five- to eight-story buildings create a unique skyline, with some homes connected by elevated corridors. These corridors allow residents to move between houses quickly, providing a means to defend against attackers. The buildings feature wooden window frames set into mud-plastered walls, with many windows carved into elegant arches. While Shibam’s history dates back to the third century, most of the existing structures were built in the 16th century. Regular maintenance is required for these earthen buildings, as the walls must be replastered periodically to combat erosion from wind and rain. And the roofs and the exterior of the mud towers had sustained the most damage.
The bricks used in Shibam’s buildings gradually decrease in size on the upper floors, resulting in thinner walls as the structure rises and giving the buildings a trapezoidal shape. This design helps to reduce the load on the lower floors, enhancing the overall stability and strength of the buildings. Typically, each building is occupied by a single family, with living spaces located from the third floor upwards. The first and second floors are often designated for food storage and livestock stables, allowing families to keep cattle inside during periods when the town was under siege.
Al Sayyad, Nezar. “The Architecture of Mud: Construction and Repair Technology in the Hadhramaut Region of Yemen.” Environmental Design: Journal of the Islamic Environmental Design Research Centre, 1988.
Serageldin, Ismail. Traditional Architecture: Shibam and the Hadramut Region. London: Academy Editions, 1991.
Alhussein, Redhwan, and Tetsuya Kusuda. “Performance and Response of Historical Earth Buildings to Flood Events in Wadi Hadramaut, Yemen.” Built Heritage, vol. 5, no. 1, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1186/s43238-021-00044-8. Accessed 23 September 2024.
