Category: * Wattle and Daub

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Earth USA

Earth USA is the biennial international conference on earthen architecture organized by Adobe in Action (AinA) in Santa Fe, New Mexico. It brings together architects, engineers, builders, and researchers to share advances in clay-based construction. Earth USA began in 2003 as “Adobe USA,” first held at Northern New Mexico College by the Adobe Association of the Southwest and dedicated to Paul Graham McHenry, and it has continued on a biennial basis since then. In 2011, the name formally changed to Earth USA for the sixth conference, held in Albuquerque, and since 2013 all subsequent conferences have taken place in Santa Fe. Key milestones include the adoption of a broader earthen-material scope beyond adobe, as well as expanded international participation.

The Scottish Rite Center hosts the conference, reinforcing the event’s Southwestern adobe heritage. The Santa Fe venue also underscores the material focus: the Alhambra Theater is a pink adobe stucco building, and local expertise in adobe construction is abundant. Site tours have included Pueblo ruins, ancestral Spanish missions, and owner-built adobe homes throughout northern New Mexico. Typical Earth USA activities have featured on-site workshops, such as plastering demonstrations, as well as earthen installations; for example, past Earthbuilders’ Guild teams have built mud-brick stages and art displays on-site. In sum, the conference’s materials and form revolve around clay-rich architecture, celebrating both the traditional thick earthen walls of Santa Fe’s historic districts and cutting-edge earth technology.

Earth USA is run by AinA, a New Mexico 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization dedicated to adobe and earthen-building education. AinA was founded by Mike Lopach and launched Earth USA to empower owner-builders. For Earth USA 2026, AinA’s Lisa Morey and Dan Krause co-preside on the board of AinA, and the Executive Director is Kurt Gardella, a certified adobe instructor who studied under Quentin Wilson at Northern New Mexico College. Gardella holds adobe construction certifications and leads AinA’s certificate program. He has been “a major organizer of Earth USA” while also teaching owner-builder courses. Lisa Morey is a civil engineer and designer, and co-founder of Colorado Earth LLC. She is the author of Adobe Homes for All Climates and holds a patent for reinforced adobe brick walls. Dan Krause is a retired ASU professor who became enamored with adobe while living in Arizona. He designed and built two of his own adobe homes, earning AinA’s Adobe Construction certificate in 2020. Collectively, the organizers combine academic and practical expertise to network experts, educate practitioners, and advance earthen construction worldwide. 

Each Earth USA conference follows a structured program with three days of presentations and posters, along with associated social and field activities. The format typically includes a Friday welcome keynote, all-day podium and poster sessions from Friday through Sunday, and Sunday afternoon tours to regional earth-building sites. For example, Earth USA 2024’s schedule featured invited talks on topics ranging from flood-proof adobe shelters to waste-earth reuse and seismic earth block design, alongside panels on owner-builder case studies and clay plaster techniques. All conferences include a Friday night reception sponsored by the Earthbuilders’ Guild and guided tours to adobe missions, historic homes, and new earth projects on Sunday. The scope of subjects is broad, and organizers note that the program reflects a wide field of interest, including adobe, rammed earth, compressed earth block, cob, and essentially any method that uses clay as a binder.

Key themes encompass the use of sustainable materials, including earth plasters and stabilized blocks; advancements in modern fabrication techniques such as 3D printing and robotics in earthen architecture; building science considerations ranging from thermal performance to seismic resilience; historic preservation; and social projects focused on affordable housing and owner-builder training programs. For instance, Earth USA has featured a keynote from, “Mud Frontiers,” by Ronald Rael (UC Berkeley) on 3D-printed earth architecture, as well as a session on a Ghanaian rammed-earth housing prototype, “Kente House,” by Angeles Hevia. Other sessions have addressed codes and policy, including Ben Loescher on U.S. earthen masonry standards and Stephen Colley on adopting adobe in building codes. Topics also include education, such as introducing clay into architecture curricula, and innovation, including rotational tampers for rammed earth.

Earth USA is attended primarily by architects, engineers, and builders interested in sustainable construction, but also by anthropologists, code officials, and environmental advocates. The gatherings are intentionally international and multidisciplinary, as reflected in a speaker roster that includes talks on building practices from India, Japan, and Norway. Attendees leave with a sense of community, supported by nightly informal receptions and a vibrant email newsletter, EarthUSA News, which keeps participants connected year-round. In sum, Earth USA operates as a volunteer-driven conference in which the organizing committee handles logistics and content curation, while academic partners disseminate the findings.

The program is fully documented in the conference proceedings and often carries American Institute of Architecture (AIA) continuing-education credits. Speakers come from universities, nonprofits, governments, and industries worldwide, and recent years have seen participants from 15 to 20 countries. Poster sessions provide a venue for shorter papers on topics such as material testing, vernacular research, and life-cycle analysis. Throughout, the conference emphasizes process, including peer-reviewed abstracts, international volunteer committees, and field demonstrations, as much as the building form itself. Many sessions delve into construction processes such as mix design, compaction, and curing, while others focus on form-finding and earth structures shaped by heritage or innovation.

As an organization, AinA solicits abstracts internationally through a call for papers reviewed by experts and publishes proceedings. For 2026, for instance, abstracts were due in February 2026 and full papers in June 2026. Registration is open to professionals, students, and owner-builders. Earth USA’s inclusive approach is also reflected in its leadership; for example, owner-builder Ethan Novikoff both presented and served on the AinA board, bridging practitioner and organizer roles. Sponsorship comes from allied nongovernmental organizations and firms such as the Earthbuilders’ Guild, the SFCC Adobe program, supporting organizations, and architecture firms.

Earth USA presents a clear consensus that earthen materials are inherently sustainable, resilient, and culturally rich. Many presenters emphasize earth’s low carbon footprint and ease of reuse, as well as its climate-comfort benefits, thermal mass, and humidity buffering. There is a shared mission to reclaim these traditional techniques in a modern context. From an architectural perspective, the conference inspires both reflection and action. It demonstrates how ancient building methods can inform contemporary design, for example, how Pueblo-style thick walls inspire passive climate control, or how combining fibers and modern stabilizers can make cob livable in cold regions. On the technological side, sessions on 3D-printing clay and new tamping machines point toward a future in which even large-scale earth building is industrially feasible. The Earth USA community also exchanges practical solutions; one talk, for instance, detailed how to guide a cob house through building inspections, while others described integrating adobe into U.S. building codes. In conclusion, Earth USA galvanizes the earthen-construction movement. It has inspired new international collaborations, spurred educational initiatives, and reinforced advocates’ resolve to promote sustainable, beautiful architecture that can be made from the ground.

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Bahareque (alternatively spelled bareque, also known as quincha)

Casa de pau a pique, or a bahareque house in Brazil.

Bahareque is the Spanish name for what is known in English as wattle and daub, a method of building where wet loam is applied to an interwoven mesh of twigs, branches, bamboo, etc. Specifically, bahareque (also known as quincha) is a subset of the thrown loam technique, where the wet loam is applied by hand onto the organic skeleton. The loam of earth (a combination of clay, silt, and soil) and aggregate, usually straw. Bahareque describes a wide range of building techniques and types, and can be separated out into various local traditions across South America.

Traditional bahareque wall.

Originally combined with palm frond roofs, bahareque was often topped with tiled roofs after European colonization. It can be used in combination with other earthen architecture technologies, as seen in the image below.

Solar do Major Novaes, constructed with adobe on the lower floor and wattle and daub on the upper floor.

Bahareque is currently being explored as a low-cost housing typology. There are questions as to how well it can withstand seismic activity, but it is often proposed as a housing solution for earthquake stricken regions. Costa Rica, Ecuador, and Brazil have all introduced engineered bahareque (or cement bahareque) following devastating earthquakes.

In Ecuador, where the matrix and frame for bahareque architecture is made of guadua bamboo, one of the strongest bamboo subspecies, there is promising contemporary research proving that bahareque is superior to masonry architecture both for earthquake safety and from a sustainability standpoint.

Bahareque houses designed by ARUP and REDES, before the plaster is applied to the bamboo matrix.
Construction documents of bahareque houses designed by ARUP.

References:

[1] http://www.crockerltd.net/adobe_big_one.htm

[2] https://www.seismico.org/bahareque

[3] https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282701710_Engineered_bamboo_houses_for_low-income_communities_in_Latin_America

[4] https://www.researchgate.net/publication/311583390_Design_Guide_for_Engineered_Bahareque_Housing/download

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Wattle and Daub in the UK

Wattle and daub is a traditional building technique that has been used in the UK for centuries, dating back to prehistoric times and continuing well into the 20th century. This method was particularly common in medieval timber-framed buildings and remains an important part of Britain’s architectural heritage.

Construction Method

Wattle and daub consists of two main components:

  1. Wattle: A lattice of wooden strips or branches (often hazel) woven between upright poles. This forms the structural framework for the wall.
  2. Daub: A mixture of wet materials applied to the wattle. The daub typically consists of:
    • Binders: Clay, lime, or chalk dust
    • Aggregates: Earth, sand, or crushed stone
    • Reinforcement: Straw, hair, or other fibrous materials

The daub is applied in stages, first as balls pressed into the wattle from both sides, then allowed to dry before being scratched and covered with a lime plaster. Finally, the wall is often whitewashed for additional protection.

Advantages

Wattle and daub offers several benefits:

  1. Strong yet flexible, accommodating structural movement
  2. Good insulation properties
  3. Effective moisture management
  4. Durable when properly maintained

Historical Significance

Archaeological evidence of wattle and daub has been found in various locations across the UK, often associated with medieval manors and other important sites. In England, remains of Iron Age circular dwellings constructed using this method have been discovered.

Conservation and Modern Use

Many historic buildings in the UK still feature original wattle and daub panels, some up to 700 years old. Conservation efforts focus on preserving these panels, with repairs carried out using traditional techniques. Some heritage organizations, like the Weald & Downland Living Museum, offer courses in wattle and daub construction and repair.

In recent years, there has been renewed interest in wattle and daub as a sustainable building method for new timber-framed structures, due to its use of local, natural materials and low environmental impact.

Wattle and daub remains an important part of the UK’s architectural heritage, showcasing traditional craftsmanship and sustainable building practices that continue to be relevant today.

Sources

  1. https://www.meldrethhistory.org.uk/buildings/building_materials/wall-and-framework-materials/wattle-and-daub
  2. https://www.wealddown.co.uk/museum-news/wattle-and-daub/
  3. https://www.buildingconservation.com/articles/wattleanddaub/wattleanddaub.htm
  4. https://www.britannica.com/technology/wattle-and-daub
  5. https://www.lowimpact.org/categories/wattle-daub
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Marcelo Cortes: Quincha and Teknobarro

Image Source: Marcelo Cortés

Chilean architect Marcelo Cortés is known for his construction technique called quincha metálica, that combines a steel frame and welded wire mesh with a mud mixture Cortés calls tecno-barro.

Image Source: No Tech Magazine

This construction method reimagines the wattle and daub building method known as quincha, a traditional technology that has existed in South America for at least 8,000 years.

Traditionally, a quincha structure is constructed by creating a framework, or wattle, of interwoven pieces of wood, cane, or bamboo. This matrix of vertical and horizontal members is then covered on both sides with a mixture of mud and straw, or daub, and finished with a thin lime plaster to create a weathertight building envelope in the form of wall or ceiling panels. The system results in a lightweight flexible structure that is inherently earthquake resistant.

Image Source: Marcelo Cortés

Cortés was inspired by the way that historic homes in the center of Santiago were constructed, which used metal wire to hold mud bricks within a wooden frame in place during earthquakes.

Image Source: Marcelo Cortés

In Cortés’s construction process, a framework of steel and welded wire mesh are erected into a framework and the steel is coated with an asphalt emulsion to prevent corrosion. He then applies a mud mixture he refers to as tecno-barro, that is stabilized with lime to reduce the volumetric expansion of clay and increase water impermeability. This technique allows him to create volumetric forms that have not been historically found in earthen construction

One example of the quincha metálica and tecno-barro technique can be found in the Peñalolén House, on the outskirts of Santiago, in a place called Peñalolén, Chile.

The Peñalolén House is a private residence that reinterprets traditional Chilean central valley architecture. It is approximately 1,075 square feet and designed to blend in with the environment and maximize the views of the Andes Mountains.

The home has canted walls to protect against solar gain and wind-driven rain. Its steel frame provides flexibility and earthquake resistance, while the thin mud skin remains lightweight.

This is one of many examples Cortés has been able to produce using this construction method.

Image Source: Marcelo Cortés
Image Source: Marcelo Cortés
Image Source: Marcelo Cortés

Marcelo Cortés is a renowned Chilean architect, constructor, and earth researcher. He graduated from the University of Chile and has since become a pioneering figure in contemporary earth architecture. Cortes holds the UNESCO Chair in earth architecture, constructive cultures, and sustainable habitat, reflecting his expertise and contributions to the field.

His innovative work in earthquake-resistant earth construction techniques has earned him international recognition. In 2016, Cortes received a tribute at TerraWorld as a world pioneer of contemporary earth architecture. The College of Architects of Chile awarded him the Fermín Vivaceta Rupio Award for his technological applications in architecture.

Cortes is also the founder of the ARCOT Network, which unites nine public and regional universities in Chile to establish an earth architecture chair. His research and practical innovations in reinforced earth techniques for seismic regions have been the subject of a doctoral thesis by Favio Gatti at the Polytechnic University of Catalonia, completed in 2023.

Citations

  1. Rael, Ron. Earth Architecture. Princeton Architectural Press, 2006.
  2. “Quincha.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quincha.
  3. “Marcelo Cortés arquitecto. El desafío sísmico de las técnicas con tierra armada.” UPC Commons, https://upcommons.upc.edu/handle/2117/404662?show=full.
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Traditional Ukrainian Building Techniques: Mazanka

For centuries, Ukrainians have utilized the earth to create diverse and resilient dwellings. While wood played a role in certain regions, earthen construction techniques were widespread, particularly in the steppe and forest-steppe zones where wood was scarce. One of the most common methods was wattle and daub, employed as far back as the Neolithic Trypillian culture (5500-2750 BC). This involved creating a woven lattice of wood (“wattle”) and then applying a mud or clay mixture (“daub”) to form the walls. This technique, while simple, provided sturdy and well-insulated structures.  While the actual structures haven’t survived, the archaeological evidence provides insights into their building techniques. Museums like the Museum of Folk Architecture and Way of Life of Central Dnieper Ukraine in Pereiaslav preserve examples of traditional building techniques, including earthen structures. The museum is part of Pereiaslav National Historical and Ethnographic Reserve. It was created in the 1960s and is the first open-air museum in Ukraine. The skansen (open-air) area on the picturesque Tatar Mount is divided into several sections: a pre-Soviet Ukrainian village of the Middle Cis-Dnipro Region, crafts and trades of a reformed Ukrainian village, windmills, and the earliest period section. Its total area of 25 hectares contains about 300 items, 122 of which are folk architecture monuments from the 17th to 19th centuries. They include 20 households with dwelling houses and outbuildings, presenting over 20,000 artifacts, such as works of folk craftsmen, lobar tools, household items, archaeological materials, documents, and photos.

Links:

Neolithic Trypillian culture, Museums like the Museum of Folk Architecture and Way of Life of Central Dnieper Ukraine in Pereiaslav, Pyana Hata restaurant, Ukrainian hata Wiki, Ukrainian hata, Mazanka, Museum of Folk Architecture and Folkways of Ukraine

Neolithic Trypillan settlements, Southeastern Europe1914

Ukrainian traditional houses were generally built facing south to maximize sunlight for warmth. This often resulted in houses being positioned at various angles to the street, especially in hilly areas with complex terrain, creating a charmingly haphazard village layout. In flatter regions, houses were more likely to be aligned with the street.

19th century

1929

In rural areas, the tradition of earthen construction continued to flourish, shaping vernacular architecture. Homes, outbuildings, and even churches featured cob walls made from a mix of clay, sand, and straw. This readily available material created thick, insulating walls that were well-suited to the Ukrainian climate.

Another prominent technique was the construction of mazanka houses. This type of house got the name mazanka from the word mazaty  (Ukrainian: мазати; to smear, to grease, to plaster with clay mortar). These structures usually utilized a wooden frame filled with clay mixed with straw or reeds, brushwood, or woven willow branches. The walls were then plastered with a clay mixture and whitewashed, creating a distinctive and practical dwelling.  The choice of technique often depended on the availability of local materials. They dominated areas with limited wood, clay, and straw, while regions with more forests might incorporate more timber framing. This adaptability is a hallmark of Ukrainian earthen building traditions, reflecting a harmonious/sustainable relationship between builders and their environment.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Ukrainian San Antonio Українське Сан Антоніо Homestead Батьківська ХатаFrom left to right: 1st room is a house (with a clay oven), inner porch (siny), and outbuilding (food storage, household items, or even an animal stall).

 

 

 

 

The architectural appearance of the folk dwelling – “khata” – and its internal organization in its main features are common throughout Ukraine.  Khata is a rectangular, somewhat elongated building in plan, covered with a hipped roof; the ratio of the width of the building to the length ranges from 1:1.25 to 1:2.25.

The living space itself approaches a square – the most economical rectangular shape of a room, in which the perimeter of the walls and the cooling of the room are the smallest. A large entrance hall and a pantry attached to the living space lengthen the plan. If the hut is built for two independent living spaces with an entrance hall between them, then the building is stretched along the main facade and acquires an elongated shape.

 

 

 

 

 

The most typical roof design in Ukraine was a hipped roof with four sides and sloping ends supported by rafters. These rafters were either attached to the top of the log walls or to longitudinal beams laid on top of the walls. In the Polissya region, a gable roof (two-sided) was also common, constructed in a few different ways: with a log covering, using supports shaped like chairs, or with posts supporting a main beam and the entire roof.

Roofs were typically covered with straw, either bound in sheaves or spread loosely. In forested and mountainous areas, the log structure of the house was left exposed, showcasing the craftsmanship of the interlocking logs. In the steppe and forest-steppe zones, houses were usually whitewashed inside and out, regardless of the building material, creating a striking contrast against the surrounding greenery. Colorful accents around windows, doors, and the base added a cheerful touch.

 

 

 

The simplest Ukrainian hut had two rooms: a large entrance hall used for storage and a warm living area. The stove dominated the living space, serving as a cooking area, storage space, drying rack, and even a bed! Kitchenware was kept near the entrance, while the sleeping area was located at the back, away from the windows.

 

 

 

 

The floor was made of earth in the early periods and later also had a special clay base. Only in some regions of Ukraine was the floor made of wood.

 

These time-tested techniques, passed down through generations, not only provided shelter but also shaped the unique character of Ukrainian villages. The whitewashed walls of mazanka houses, nestled among gardens and fields, created a picturesque landscape that continues to define the rural Ukrainian identity. Though modern materials have become more prevalent, the legacy of earthen construction remains an important part of Ukraine’s architectural heritage.

Here, you can check out a contemporary documentary film about the vernacular architecture of Ukraine filmed during the war, where multimedia platform Ukraïner and film studio Craft Story have teamed up for a special five-part documentary series entitled ‘STRIKHA’ (meaning ‘the roof’ in Ukrainian). Based on a long-term expedition throughout all regions of war-torn Ukraine (except those occupied by Russia), the series portrays the country’s authentic and vernacular architectural ‘treasures,’ particularly those hidden in distant villages, away from the main road.

Here’s an example of a contemporary take on Ukrainian earthen building utilizing the wattle, daub, and cobb techniques. The Ukrainian architecture firm of architect Yuriy Ryntovt built the restaurant Pyana Hata in Kharkiv in 1999 (literal translation: “drunk house,” but now you know that khata/hata means not just a house but an earthen plus wooden structure) that may playfully resemble an ancient Neolithic Trypillian culture aesthetics.  The building area is 350 m2, and the site area is 0.4 hectares.  

Yuriy Ryntovt is born in 1966. Head of the creative workshop Ryntovt Design (Kharkov), specializing in architectural design, furniture, and interior design. Co-founder and artistic director of the theater and concert club “RODDom.” 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Tebogo Home for Handicapped Children

Orange Farm is a township in the southwest of Johannesburg. The social situation is characterised by poverty, AIDS and unemployment. The appearance of the development is dominated largely by buildings or shacks made mostly of sheet metal, corrugated iron or parts of cars. In summer it can become unbearably hot in these shacks (up to 45°C), while during winter nights it can be noticeably cold (to 2°C).

BASE habitat was commissioned by the Tebogo Home for Handicapped Children. The Austrian NGO SARCH set up this contact for us. The home for almost 50 children had become too small. In a group of 25 students we planned and built a dining building with a new kitchen, and a therapy building with sanitary facilities. A generously dimensioned pergola, a garden hall, connects the buildings with each other. The buildings we erected in Tebogo have a pleasant indoor climate throughout the year – without the use of energy. In this way we were able to reduce the fluctuation in temperature to only 9°C. Local workers, above all women, were integrated in the project. The building materials were acquired directly from the township: concrete blocks, earth, clay, straw, timber, grass mats – to strengthen the local economy and to make later repetition easier. One of the main aims was to make buildings that suited the needs of the children. They received a home that conveyed a sense of security and joy in living.

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El Faro: The Citizens’ Initiative Pavilion


Photo credit

The architectural project of the Citizens’ Initiative Pavilion building is the work of the architect Ricardo Higueras for the Zaragoza Expo 2008.

The pavilion building will be based on energy efficiency, recycling and sustainability. Both the building’s shape and its use are based on the traditional ceramic pitcher. The materials used are natural and come straight from the earth: straw, wood, and clay. Prefabricated clay-plastered panels were attached to a super-structure to enclose the pavillion. More photos in the photo gallery. [ Previously ]