Posts

Posted on

Wattle and Daub in the UK

Wattle and daub is a traditional building technique that has been used in the UK for centuries, dating back to prehistoric times and continuing well into the 20th century. This method was particularly common in medieval timber-framed buildings and remains an important part of Britain’s architectural heritage.

Construction Method

Wattle and daub consists of two main components:

  1. Wattle: A lattice of wooden strips or branches (often hazel) woven between upright poles. This forms the structural framework for the wall.
  2. Daub: A mixture of wet materials applied to the wattle. The daub typically consists of:
    • Binders: Clay, lime, or chalk dust
    • Aggregates: Earth, sand, or crushed stone
    • Reinforcement: Straw, hair, or other fibrous materials

The daub is applied in stages, first as balls pressed into the wattle from both sides, then allowed to dry before being scratched and covered with a lime plaster. Finally, the wall is often whitewashed for additional protection.

Advantages

Wattle and daub offers several benefits:

  1. Strong yet flexible, accommodating structural movement
  2. Good insulation properties
  3. Effective moisture management
  4. Durable when properly maintained

Historical Significance

Archaeological evidence of wattle and daub has been found in various locations across the UK, often associated with medieval manors and other important sites. In England, remains of Iron Age circular dwellings constructed using this method have been discovered.

Conservation and Modern Use

Many historic buildings in the UK still feature original wattle and daub panels, some up to 700 years old. Conservation efforts focus on preserving these panels, with repairs carried out using traditional techniques. Some heritage organizations, like the Weald & Downland Living Museum, offer courses in wattle and daub construction and repair.

In recent years, there has been renewed interest in wattle and daub as a sustainable building method for new timber-framed structures, due to its use of local, natural materials and low environmental impact.

Wattle and daub remains an important part of the UK’s architectural heritage, showcasing traditional craftsmanship and sustainable building practices that continue to be relevant today.

Sources

  1. https://www.meldrethhistory.org.uk/buildings/building_materials/wall-and-framework-materials/wattle-and-daub
  2. https://www.wealddown.co.uk/museum-news/wattle-and-daub/
  3. https://www.buildingconservation.com/articles/wattleanddaub/wattleanddaub.htm
  4. https://www.britannica.com/technology/wattle-and-daub
  5. https://www.lowimpact.org/categories/wattle-daub
Posted on

WASP: Gaia

WASP (World’s Advanced Savings Project) has pioneered an innovative approach to sustainable architecture with their 3D-printed house called Gaia. This eco-friendly structure represents a significant advancement in sustainable construction and showcases the potential of using natural, locally-sourced materials in 3D printing technology.

Demonstration Video

First Layer Video

Materials and Composition

Gaia is built primarily using a mixture of:

  1. 25% local soil (30% clay, 40% silt, 30% sand)
  2. 40% chopped rice straw
  3. 25% rice husk
  4. 10% hydraulic lime

This composition utilizes natural waste materials from rice production, making it an environmentally conscious choice.

Construction Process

The house was 3D printed using the Crane WASP, a specialized 3D printer designed for on-site construction. The printing process took approximately 100 hours to complete 30 square meters of wall with a thickness of 40 cm.

Design and Performance

Gaia incorporates:

  1. Natural ventilation systems
  2. Thermo-acoustic insulation
  3. Bioclimatic efficiency

The structure maintains a comfortable temperature year-round without the need for heating or air conditioning systems, showcasing its energy efficiency.

Environmental Impact and Cost

Gaia demonstrates remarkable sustainability:

  1. Near-zero environmental impact
  2. Total material cost for the walls: €900
  3. Biodegradable construction materials
  4. Minimal carbon footprint

Significance and Future Implications

WASP’s Gaia project represents a significant step towards addressing global housing needs sustainably. By utilizing local materials and advanced 3D printing technology, this approach offers:

  1. A potential solution for rapid, low-cost housing construction
  2. Reduced environmental impact compared to traditional building methods
  3. Adaptability to various geographical locations and climates

The success of Gaia has led to further developments, such as the TECLA project, which aims to create even more sustainable and scalable housing solutions.

WASP’s Gaia project demonstrates the viability of combining an ancient building practice and material (earth) with modern 3D printing technology, and might demonstrate one way to create sustainable, efficient, and cost-effective housing.

Sources

  1. https://www.designnuance.com/the-first-3d-printed-house-gaia-built-with-earth/
  2. https://www.3dwasp.com/en/3d-printed-house-gaia/
  3. https://www.archpaper.com/2019/04/gaia-house-facadesplus/
  4. https://3dprintingindustry.com/news/wasp-showcases-3d-printed-bio-building-at-we-are-nature-event-176687/
  5. https://www.3dnatives.com/en/wasp-moves-towards-sustainable-construction-by-3d-printing-soil/
Posted on

Marcelo Cortes: Quincha and Teknobarro

Image Source: Marcelo Cortés

Chilean architect Marcelo Cortés is known for his construction technique called quincha metálica, that combines a steel frame and welded wire mesh with a mud mixture Cortés calls tecno-barro.

Image Source: No Tech Magazine

This construction method reimagines the wattle and daub building method known as quincha, a traditional technology that has existed in South America for at least 8,000 years.

Traditionally, a quincha structure is constructed by creating a framework, or wattle, of interwoven pieces of wood, cane, or bamboo. This matrix of vertical and horizontal members is then covered on both sides with a mixture of mud and straw, or daub, and finished with a thin lime plaster to create a weathertight building envelope in the form of wall or ceiling panels. The system results in a lightweight flexible structure that is inherently earthquake resistant.

Image Source: Marcelo Cortés

Cortés was inspired by the way that historic homes in the center of Santiago were constructed, which used metal wire to hold mud bricks within a wooden frame in place during earthquakes.

Image Source: Marcelo Cortés

In Cortés’s construction process, a framework of steel and welded wire mesh are erected into a framework and the steel is coated with an asphalt emulsion to prevent corrosion. He then applies a mud mixture he refers to as tecno-barro, that is stabilized with lime to reduce the volumetric expansion of clay and increase water impermeability. This technique allows him to create volumetric forms that have not been historically found in earthen construction

One example of the quincha metálica and tecno-barro technique can be found in the Peñalolén House, on the outskirts of Santiago, in a place called Peñalolén, Chile.

The Peñalolén House is a private residence that reinterprets traditional Chilean central valley architecture. It is approximately 1,075 square feet and designed to blend in with the environment and maximize the views of the Andes Mountains.

The home has canted walls to protect against solar gain and wind-driven rain. Its steel frame provides flexibility and earthquake resistance, while the thin mud skin remains lightweight.

This is one of many examples Cortés has been able to produce using this construction method.

Image Source: Marcelo Cortés
Image Source: Marcelo Cortés
Image Source: Marcelo Cortés

Marcelo Cortés is a renowned Chilean architect, constructor, and earth researcher. He graduated from the University of Chile and has since become a pioneering figure in contemporary earth architecture. Cortes holds the UNESCO Chair in earth architecture, constructive cultures, and sustainable habitat, reflecting his expertise and contributions to the field.

His innovative work in earthquake-resistant earth construction techniques has earned him international recognition. In 2016, Cortes received a tribute at TerraWorld as a world pioneer of contemporary earth architecture. The College of Architects of Chile awarded him the Fermín Vivaceta Rupio Award for his technological applications in architecture.

Cortes is also the founder of the ARCOT Network, which unites nine public and regional universities in Chile to establish an earth architecture chair. His research and practical innovations in reinforced earth techniques for seismic regions have been the subject of a doctoral thesis by Favio Gatti at the Polytechnic University of Catalonia, completed in 2023.

Citations

  1. Rael, Ron. Earth Architecture. Princeton Architectural Press, 2006.
  2. “Quincha.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quincha.
  3. “Marcelo Cortés arquitecto. El desafío sísmico de las técnicas con tierra armada.” UPC Commons, https://upcommons.upc.edu/handle/2117/404662?show=full.
Posted on

METI Handmade School – Anna Herringer

Location: Dinajpur, Bangladesh
Year: 2006
​Architect:  Anna Heringer

Site Plan, Source


Knitted Elevation, Source

Anna Heringer’s METI Handmade School in Bangladesh exemplifies an innovative approach to sustainable architecture, rooted in local materials and traditional building techniques. The school was designed to serve as a community hub for education, demonstrating how effective construction methods can enhance both functionality and environmental stewardship.

Cave Space, Source

Second Floor, Source

Floor Plan, Source

The building features two contrasting levels: the ground floor, with thick earth walls and three classrooms, creates a tactile, intimate atmosphere. Each classroom opens to an organic system of ‘caves’. The upper floor contrasts sharply with its light, open design. Bamboo walls allow sweeping views of the treetops and village pond, while sunlight filters through, casting shadows on the earth floor. Colorful saris hang from the ceiling, adding vibrancy to the space, which is designed for movement and connection to the surrounding natural environment. Together, the two levels balance earthiness with openness, offering both introspective and expansive experiences.

Facade Photo,  Source

The foundation of the building rests on a 50 cm deep brick masonry base, finished with a cement plaster facing. In Bangladesh, bricks are the primary building material, produced from the region’s abundant clayey alluvial sand, as natural stone is scarce. These bricks are fired in open circular kilns using imported coal, resulting in a durable and locally sourced construction element.

Construction Photo, Source

An essential addition to local earthen building practices is the damp proof course, consisting of a double layer of locally available polyethylene film. This innovation protects the structure from moisture, enhancing its longevity. The ground floor features load-bearing walls constructed using a technique akin to cob walling. A mixture of straw and earth, with minimal straw content, is prepared with the help of local livestock and applied in layers atop the foundation. Each layer is heaped to a height of 65 cm and then trimmed after a few days to maintain uniformity. After allowing for a drying period, successive layers are added, integrating door and window lintels along with a ring beam made of thick bamboo canes.

 

Section, Source

The ceiling of the ground floor employs a triple layer of bamboo canes, with the central layer arranged perpendicularly to provide lateral stabilization. This layer is topped with split bamboo planking and filled with the earthen mixture, mirroring techniques used in European timber-frame constructions.

For the upper storey, a frame construction is utilized, comprising four-layer bamboo beams and vertical and diagonal members arranged at right angles. This design enhances the structural integrity of the building, with the frames at the ends stiffening the overall structure. Additional structural members connect the beams, and wind bracing is incorporated on the upper surface to further strengthen the frame. Supporting the corrugated iron roof are a series of bamboo rafters, which are adjusted in height for optimal runoff, topped with timber paneling.

Facade, Source

Through its innovative design and construction techniques, the METI Handmade School not only provides an educational facility but also serves as a model for sustainable building practices. It engages the community, preserves traditional craftsmanship, and utilizes local resources effectively, making it a beacon of environmental and social responsibility in architecture.

 

Read more: Anna Heringer Website

Posted on

TECLA House

TECLA House, designed by MCA and engineered by WASP.

The TECLA House is a collaboration between Mario Cucinella Architects (MCA) and World’s Advanced Saving Project (WASP). The name “TECLA” is a portmanteau of “technology” and “clay,” and references Italo Calvino’s Invisible Cities, specifically the fictional city of Thekla, were construction never ceases.

Massimo Moretti, WASP founder.
Mario Cucinella, MCA founder.

 

The materials used in the TECLA House include local clay and soil, water, rice husks, and a binder (which constitutes less than 5% of the total mixture). This makes it a true “0km building,” meaning the materials are sourced directly from the site on which the dwelling is built. WASP, an Italian 3D printing firm, brought their technological expertise to the project. Founded in 2012 by Massimo Moretti, WASP unveiled Crane WASP, their flagship 3D printer, in 2018. Mario Cucinella, the principal architect on this project, designed a morphology inspired by the potter wasp and based on the research of the School of Sustainability (SOS), Cucinella’s post-graduate school.

Sketch for the TECLA House by Mario Cucinella.

 

Interior view of the TECLA House.

TECLA was built with 350 layers of 3D printed earth. The configuration of the walls was dictated by the humidity and temperature of the climate, and SOS made several infill case studies optimized for different geographical locations.

Detail of the TECLA printing process.
Diagram of the infill configuration of TECLA.

 

Crane WASP imagined as a modular system of infinite extent.

The TECLA House is the first dwelling built using multiple 3D printers working simultaneously and collaboratively. This project was the proof of concept for the Crane WASP. WASP claims that Crane WASP is an infinite 3D printer, whose print area of 50 square meters can be extended in a modular fashion to cover a printing area of arbitrary size.

The two Italian firms built their prototypical TECLA house in Massa Lombarda, Italy, but the idea is that the house can be reproduced anywhere. WASP advertises their “Maker Economy Starter Kit,” which can be purchased online and fits inside a single shipping container. TECLA can be reproduced in “200 hours of printing, […] 150 km of extrusion, 60 cubic meters of natural materials for an average consumption of less than 6 kW.” Interested parties can also purchase an entire Crane WASP rig for €160,000.

Posted on

Hope Village Community Center: Tanzania

Hassell and Imigo

Hope Village is located in Tanzania of East Africa, along the coast of the Indian Ocean. The main component of this project is the community center building, which is designed with complex earthen walls and a metal / wood roofing system. This community center will serve as a 480 student school, kitchen, dining hall, bakery, and storage space. Surrounding this main building will be housing for the children of the community, aged 3-18 years old.   This project is being created in collaboration with Hassell Studio, ClarkeHopkinsClarke Studio, the Institute for Advanced Architecture of Catalonia, EOC Engineers, and One Heart Tanzania. 

Sustainability is a major factor in the design and construction of the Hope Community Center, which, due to their 100% recyclability,  resulted in the selection of 3D printed earthen/adobe walls. These wall designs are being created in collaboration with the Institute for Advanced Architecture of Catalonia, and prototypes are currently being built in Barcelona. The walls are currently designed in a lattice-type structure, allowing for significant air circulation within the community center as well as diluted light throughout the space. The soil used for the walls will be sourced from no more than 15.5 miles of the site, and the layers will contain thin wire mesh sheets to add to the structural integrity of the building. 

3DPA

 

The adobe is expelled from the machine shown above to create the multi-layered lattice structure (Crane WASP Printing System). The plan is for technical experts from Hessel Studio, ClarkeHopkinsClarke Studio,  Institute for Advanced Architecture of Catalonia and EOC to travel to the site and teach locals how to use this Crane WASP technology. The machinery is then planned to be left there, with community members now able to operate it on their own and continue to develop their community spaces. 

Hassell and Imigo

 

The roofing system will be constructed out of local timber and a central steel beam. The roof “resembles a draped blanket. Comprising short pieces of timber, the roof will further be supported by cladding made of readily available corrugated metal sheet panels.” 

Hassell and ClarkeHopkinsClarke

 

This image shows the combined  planned use of wood, corrugated metal sheets and steel beams for the construction of the roof. 

Construction of the village and the community center is set to begin in early to mid 2025. The intention of its construction is to involve the local community and provide job opportunities throughout the building process, all while prioritizing safety and access to crucial resources for local youth. 

Location: Hope Village, Kibaha, Tanzania

Architects: HASSELL, ClarkeHopkinsClarke

Charity/Partner: One Heart Tanzania @one_heart_co

Collaborator: Institute for Advanced Architecture of Catalonia 

Structural Engineering: EOC @eocengineers

Renderings: IMIGO @imigo.it

Start Construction: 2025

 

Posted on

Clay Rotunda

The Clay Rotunda is a cylindrical, free-standing structure that encloses the SE MusicLab, a high-fidelity music space inside the renovated Gurten Brewery in Bern. This innovative design uses unreinforced clay, a zero-waste, eco-friendly material, as its primary component. Standing 5 meters tall with a diameter of almost 11 meters, the structure was built entirely on-site over a period of 50 days using advanced robotic technology, assembling over 30,000 soft clay bricks.

The project was initiated by SE MusicLab, a high-fidelity music studio, with the design executed by a collaborative team involving experts from Lehmag (a specialist in earthen construction), Seforb (an engineering firm), and Brauchli Ziegeleien (a brick manufacturer). These partners share a commitment to integrating traditional materials with modern technology, striving to create sustainable, emission-free construction methods. Their collective goal was to push the limits of earthen architecture by blending computational design with ancient building techniques.

Design Concept
The slender form of the rotunda is stabilized by its undulating surface, which increases the footprint and prevents structural buckling. The geometry was carefully calculated using a computational model that integrated engineering requirements, material properties, and the construction process itself. Given the limited reach of the robotic arm and the natural shrinkage of clay as it dries, the structure was divided into trapezoidal sections. This segmentation was key to ensuring that each clay cylinder was positioned correctly and supported the structural integrity of the whole.

Material Innovation and Construction Process
To achieve the desired strength and malleability, a specific clay mix was developed, blending clay with sand, small stones, and water. This mixture was molded into cylindrical “soft bricks,” each 9 cm in diameter and 15 cm in height. A robotic arm then precisely placed and compressed each brick, reducing it by 40% of its height to create strong bonds between the units. The entire structure was built segment by segment, with the robot relocating to different positions as the project progressed. Throughout the process, 3D scanning was used to continuously monitor the structure’s geometry and adjust for any material shrinkage. Cracks that formed during drying were filled to maintain a consistent finish.

Sustainability Features
One of the key aspects of the Clay Rotunda is its commitment to sustainable building practices. By using clay, a natural material that can be recycled and returned to the earth, the project minimizes waste and avoids harmful emissions. The clay’s inherent qualities also contribute to the building’s interior climate, naturally regulating temperature and humidity, reducing the need for mechanical systems. This project pushes the boundaries of how traditional materials like clay can be reimagined through digital design and robotic construction.

Clay Rotunda / Gramazio Kohler Research - Image 17 of 17

Citations

 

 

Posted on

IAAC: Digital Adobe

Completed wall and platform on IAAC campus outside of Barcelona [1]
Architects: Alexandre Dubor and Edouard Cabay (see below for full team)

Location: Barcelona, Spain

Year of Completion: 2018

Area: 10 square meters

Digital Adobe is a research project developed by faculty directors Alexandre Dubor and Edouard Cabay at the IAAC (Institute for Advanced Architecture of Catalonia) in 2017-2018 (The rest of the contributors can be found here). The goal was to apply additive manufacturing techniques to the creation of an adobe wall with “highly performative structural and passive/climatic behavior” that could be adapted to the material limitations and climatic conditions of many locations [1]. The project culminated with the design and construction of a wall composed of 3D printed Adobe bricks, assembled by hand. The printed mixture is composed of 43% clay (unusually high for traditional adobe) , 25% aggregate, 13% water, and 1% bio based additives. The mixture was developed and strength tested before  being used in smaller scale 3D printed prototypes and eventually the 1:1 wall. Assembly took 5 days [3]. The whole process can be seen in this video produced by the IAAC.

The structural capacity of the wall and its potential for integration with other building materials is demonstrated by the connection of a timber frame platform that bears on the wall. The research team also designed the wall to be self supporting. This is achieved through the tapering profile from 0.7m at the base to 0.2m at the top. This geometry combined with the wall’s own weight provide stability [1].

Wood beam to adobe wall connection [2]
The other determinant of geometry was passive climactic behavior. The research team aimed to harness the natural properties of adobe, while enhancing them via geometric variation. Hollow bricks allow for cavity ventilation in the final assembly (while also saving material) and protrusions create a self shading effect that limits solar gain. The internal structure and fill of the bricks also vary with differing amounts of earth fill and sizes of cavities. These differences produce a portion of the wall more attuned to passive heat gain and another optimized for ventilation and therefore passive cooling [2]. 

The varied cross section of 3D printed adobe bricks with differing amounts of earth infill. The portion of the wall on the left side of the image is optimized for passive heat gain, and cooling on the right side. [2]
The wall is significant for its demonstration of enhanced structural capacity with minimal material, and potential adaptability to various locales through enhanced passive heating and cooling made possible by the  varied brick profiles. While the production process is likely cost prohibitive for widespread application at time of its construction, the project is an important investigation into how an adobe structure’s performance might be enhanced through the formal possibilities made possible with additive manufacturing. 

A rendering produced by the IAAC team speculating on future use of the system for full buildings [1]
1.Digital Adobe. IAAC. (2019a, April 30). https://iaac.net/project/digital-adobe/ 

2. Digital Adobe – additive manufacturing with adobe towards passive habitats. IAAC Blog. (2018, August 11)  https://www.iaacblog.com/programs/digital-adobe-additive-manufacturing-adobe-towards-passive-habitats/ 

3. IAAC, Digital Adobe, IAAC Open Thesis Fabrication (2018; Barcelona) Video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sTug99TUYcw&list=PLrJLvlOA1ReATJ-qyTKT5tFWdBVbYCuM-&index=10

Posted on

David Adjaye, Asaase

Location: Gagosian Gallery, New York City

Completion: 2021

Architect:  David Adjaye

‘Asaase’ takes the form of a labyrinthine,  walls made from stacked blocks increasing in height toward a “conical vertex” in the center. The British architect’s first large sculpture was one piece to Social Works, a group exhibition of a dozen Black artists, curated by Antwaun Sargent, to engage with social space “as a community-building tool.”

João Fazenda

“It’s this idea of construction that works across many modes of sensory perceptions….it’s designed to create moments where the audience is just in – between earth. This is something people have forgotten how to do.”

 

 

 

Constructing the rammed earth blocks began with a combination of crushed limestone and schist from New York, with the tops of the shorter walls at the perimeter revealing some of the loose aggregate from the process.

Tiébélé Royal Complex, Burkina Faso

The ‘Asaase’ project incorporates a sense of collective memory and aims to evoke a deeper connection with the land, specifically traditional black architecture and historical identities. References to historic works of West African architecture such as the Tiébélé royal complex in Burkina Faso and the walled city of Agadez in Niger, can be seen in the sculpture’s maze form.

The project reflects on the unique essence of a place, drawing connections between the present and the past by examining Black communal spaces across the African continent. It delves into how these spaces served as central hubs for families and communities to gather.

The curved walls invite visitors to explore the spaces between the gallery walls and the piece before entering the spaces inside. These overlapping walls mean there are numerous ways to encounter  and move through the installation.

‘Asaase’ contemplates the idea of fragments—both in terms of physical spaces and the buildings constructed from the earth—that provided the backdrop to everyday life for Black individuals, symbolizing a connection to heritage and history. What Adjaye describes as “fragments of chambers,” can be demonstrated the most by the niche at the center of the maze.

References